C. Ess and F. Sudweeks (eds). Proceedings Cultural Attitudes Towards
Communication and Technology ’98, University of Sydney, Australia, 289-316.

WHY BUSINESS PEOPLE USE THE WORLD WIDE WEB
An Application Of Uses And Gratifications Theory
DIANE F. WITMER AND CHUTATIP TAWEESUK
Department of Communications
California State University, Fullerton
P.O. Box 6846
Fullerton, CA 92834-6846 USA

Abstract. This survey study examines psychological and functional uses
of the World Wide Web among US and Mexican business communicators. It applies uses and gratifications theory, which addresses the
attitudes and behaviors that have been identified with television viewing
motives, to new communication technologies. A total of 71 business
communicators and students were asked how and why they used the Web,
their attitudes toward it, and how their use of other media had changed
since they started using the Web. Results indicate that the Web performs
some functions similar to traditional media, and that U.S. and Mexican
business communicators use the Web for news, business, and education.
Both Mexican and U.S. users apparently are motivated to access the Web
to pass time or out of habit, for arousal, to escape, to relax, and for social
interaction. Study results indicate that the Web is not supplanting use of
other media, but that some Web users tend to rely less on printed forms of
communication such as magazines and newspapers, and that they read
less for pleasure. The concept of flow is proposed as potentially useful for
future research.

As the adoption of computer technology continues to increase in commerce,
business, education, public venues, and home spaces, both academic and
commercial researchers are recognizing the importance of understanding the
nature of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and the ways in which it is
used. The World Wide Web, in particular, is attracting attention, and scholars
are beginning to question how and why people use it. As the technology is
adopted in developing countries, serious questions also arise about the nature of
Web use across cultures. The purpose of this paper is to address both issues.
Internet technology has drawn keen interest from communication scholars
for years (e.g., Eisenberg and Monge, 1983; McLaughlin, Osborne and Smith,
1995; Rice, 1989; Schmitz and Fulk, 1991), but relatively little work has

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focused specifically on the more recently developed, specialized portion of the
Internet known as the World Wide Web. Studies in CMC traditionally have
explored the uses, effects, and social constructions of text-based messaging
(e.g., Garton and Wellman, 1995; Lea, O’Shea, Fung, and Spears, 1992;
McCormick and McCormick, 1992; O’Sullivan, 1995; Rafaeli, Sudweeks,
Konstan, and Mabry, 1994; Schaefermeyer and Sewell, Jr., 1988; Schmitz and
Fulk, 1991; Sproull and Kiesler, 1986; Sudweeks and Rafaeli, 1995; Thompsen
and Foulger, 1993; Witmer, 1998; Witmer and Katzman, 1998; Yates and
Orlikowski, 1993), real-time, text-based chatting and role-playing domains
(e.g., Batterson, 1994; Bruckman, 1993; Reid, 1991; Rheingold, 1993), and
groupware (e.g., Lea and Spears, 1991; Poole and DeSanctis, 1989). This
survey study focuses on Web use, and asks what motivates people to use the
Web, both in the United States and in Mexico. Because the Web is used
extensively for business and commerce, it targets a population of business
communicators.
Theoretical Background
The adoption of the Web for business and commerce has spurred some
preliminary studies that specifically address the Web as a new communication
medium. One line of research applies Csikszentmihalyi’s concept of “flow”
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990; Csikszentmihalyi and Selega-Csikszentmihalyi,
1989) to Web use for commercial purposes. Flow is broadly defined as an
“optimal experience” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Csikszentmihalyi and LeFevre,
1989) that maximizes perceptions of control, cognitive enjoyment, and
absorption in an interaction. A number of scholars consider flow a useful
construct for exploring human interactions with computers (e.g.,
Csikszentmihalyi 1990; Ghani, Supnick and Rooney 1991; Trevino and
Webster 1992; Webster, Trevino, and Ryan 1993). Hoffman and Novak (1995)
assert that Web users become deeply engaged in Web sites when a state of flow
is reached, and propose a many-to-many model of communication for the Web
that overturns traditional principles of mass media advertising and marketing.
They articulate a phenomenon that practitioners have observed since the
inception of the Web: public relations, marketing, and advertising efforts cannot
target Web users as passive mass audiences. Rather, practitioners must consider
the Web as a many-to-many medium that is populated by individual users who
interactively engage in the communication process.
A second line of research applies uses and gratifications theory, which
addresses the attitudes and behaviors that have been identified with television
viewing motives, to new communication technologies. Uses and gratifications
theory is widely used in mass media studies (e.g., Tan, 1985), and has been
advanced for several decades. As early as 1940s, researchers studied why
people engage in various from of mass communication behavior such as

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291

listening to radio, or reading newspapers and books. Herzog (1944) found three
types of gratifications--emotional release, wishful thinking, and obtaining
advice--to be associated with listening to radio soap operas. Lasswell (1948)
proposed four functions of the mass communication media: surveillance,
correlation, entertainment, and socialization. Similarly, McLeod and Becker
(1974) found seven dimensions, which they called surveillance, excitement,
reinforcement, guidance, anticipated communication, relaxation, and alienation.
Davison (1959) pointed out that the communicator’s audience is not a passive
recipient. Rather, the audience demands something from the communications to
which they are exposed, and chooses only those communications that offer
some benefit.
A number of later studies investigate the uses and gratifications of
traditional media such as television, radio, and print. McQuail, Blumler, and
Brown (1972) assert that traditional mass media perform four functions:
surveillance, diversion, personal identity and social integration. People gather
information about environment through mass media, and escape from the
constraints and stress of their daily lives. Individuals find emotional release,
tools for reference, support for ideas, behavioral guidance, reality exploration,
and value reinforcement through media use. They use the media as substitutes
for companionship, and to gather information for use in social relationships .
Greenberg (1972) identifies motives for and gratifications of television
viewing among young students in England. He believes that the motives for
television viewing among pre- and post-adolescent children could form an adult
pattern of gratifications, and defines seven motivational variables:
1.

2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

7.

To pass time. Children watch television when they’re bored, when they
have nothing better to do, because it passes the time, or because it gives
them something to do.
To forget. Children watch television to forget school and homework
problems, and to get away from the rest of the family or current tasks.
To learn. Children watch television to learn things that happen in the
real world, how to do new things, to get ideas, and to learn things they
don’t learn in school.
Arousal. Children watch television because it’s thrilling, or it excites
them.
Relaxation. Children watch television because it relaxes them, calms
them down when they’re in a temper, provides a pleasant rest, and
because they are not required to do anything when watching.
Companionship. Children watch television because it approximates a
human friend, they don’t want to be alone, when there is no one to talk
or play with, and because it makes them feel less lonely.
Habit. Children watch television because it’s a habit or because they
just like to watch.

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DIANE WITMER AND CHUTATIP TAWEESUK

Greenberg (1972) reports the major reasons that 15-year-olds children watch
television are for learning, for arousal, and for companionship. For 12-yearolds, he identifies learning, arousal, to forget, and habit as the major motivators.
For 9-year-olds, the factors of learning, to forget, and relaxation were found.
Other studies also have examined motivations for using mass media. Katz,
Gurevitch, and Hass (1973) identify in the literature 35 human needs on the
social and psychological functions of the mass media. They suggest that mediarelated needs of individuals can be classified into five categories:
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

Cognitive needs are relevant to the seeking of information, knowledge
and understanding of environment. They are based on the individual’s
desire to understand and control the environment and satisfy the
person’s curiosity and exploratory drives.
Affective needs drive people to strengthen aesthetic, pleasurable
emotional experiences. Mass media are widely used for the pursuit of
pleasure and entertainment.
Personal integrative needs are influenced by a desire for self-esteem,
and motivate individuals to seek confidence, credibility, and status.
Social integrative needs are based on an individual’s desire for
affiliation, motivate people to seek contact with friends and the world.
Escapist needs or tension release needs are relevant to the desire to
escape, relieve tension or boredom, and seek diversion.

Rubin (1983) enumerates five television viewing motivations that are similar
to those of Katz, Gurevitch, and Hass, and that provide a foundation for our
study: 1) to pass time/habit, 2) for information, 3) for entertainment, 4) for
companionship, and 5) for escape.
Researchers interested in studying the theory of uses and gratifications
speculate that new media will expand audience motivations. Some scholars
consider the Web a hybrid medium that crosses computers and television (e.g.,
(Berniker, 1995; Newhagen and Rafaeli, 1996), and a number of contemporary
studies have tested the transferability of uses and gratifications theory from
television to a variety of new communication technologies (e.g., Lin, 1993;
Perse and Ferguson, 1992; Rubin and Bantz, 1989; Walker and Bellamy 1989;
Walker, Bellamy and Truadt, 1992; Williams, Phillips, and Lum, 1985).
Jeffres and Atkin (1996) propose a new grid of communication that includes
the three technologies of television, telephone and computer, which may invoke
different patterns of uses or needs than those associated with traditional
communication. Jeffres and Atkin indicate that emerging modes of
communication will allow audiences to use a wider range of communication
types than those originally envisioned. The role of audiences as passive message
receivers in traditional media has been changed to a role of active message
senders. Audiences are capable of communicating through the new media, a
concept that Hoffman and Novak (1995) have applied to the Web in a many-tomany communication model.

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293

The Internet and Web as new media for communication may satisfy basic
individual needs in the same way that traditional forms of media do. However,
communication through the Web has several characteristics that distinguish it
from the traditional media. For example, it provides interactivity (Rafaeli,
1988), hypertexuality, multimedia, and synchronicity (Morris and Ogan, 1996).
Thus, the unique characteristics of the Web may also evoke different motives
for using it than for those that prompt traditional media use, as Jeffres and Atkin
(1996) suggest. To explore this possibility, our survey study asks student and
professional business communicators in the U.S. and Mexico why and how they
use the Web, and examines both the functional and the psychological reasons
for Web use.
Research Questions
FUNCTIONAL USES OF THE WEB

Fawcett (1996) asserts that people are logging onto the Internet for information,
communication, and research, rather than for entertainment. Respondents to his
questionnaire who had used the Web or Internet within six months of the survey
reported that they accessed the Web and Internet primarily for gathering news
and information (82.0%), to use e-mail (80.5%), to conduct research (61.1%),
visit Web sites (66.9%), post to bulletin boards (39.3%), join real-time chat
rooms (25.3%), play games (23.8%) and shop (14.9%). They also utilized the
Web and Internet as alternatives to traditional library research for consumer
product information, or to prepare work for school or business. Our study
extends the question of Web use to an international audience of student and
professional business communicators. Of particular interest is how business
communicators in a developing country, specifically Mexico, use the Web in
comparison to those in the United States. Our first two research questions,
therefore are:
RQ1:
RQ2:

What are the major functional uses of the Web for business communicators?
Are the functional uses of the Web by business communicators in Mexico different
than those of business communicators in the United States?

MOTIVATIONS FOR USING THE WEB

Gollin, (1994), in a review of the literature that spans from 1945 to 1987,
reports that studies applying uses and gratifications theory yield reliable results
through time and across all forms of media. Rubin’s (1981, 1983) research on
television provides both a useful framework and a method for investigating the
application of uses and gratifications theory to the World Wide Web. Our study
builds on his and Kaye’s (in press) work and asks:

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DIANE WITMER AND CHUTATIP TAWEESUK

RQ3:

What are the motivations for using the Web among business communicators?

RQ4:

Are the motivations for using the Web by business communicators in Mexico
different than those of business communicators in the United States?

ATTITUDES TOWARD THE WEB AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WEB
USE AND USE OTHER MEDIA

Rubin’s (1981, 1983) work examines the relationships between television
viewing motivations, amount of viewing, affinity toward television, and
perceived reality of programming content. Kaye’s (in press) research
investigates similar associations between Web use motivations, amount of time
spent on the Web, affinity, perceived reality of Web content, and ease of use.
Our study extends these efforts, and asks:
RQ5:

What are the relationships between business communicators’ World Wide Web use
motivations, and Web affinity, perceived reality and ease of use?

RQ6:

Are the relationships between World Wide Web use motivations, and Web affinity,
perceived reality and ease of use different for Mexican business communicators
than for U.S. business communicators?

RQ7:

What are the relationships between business communicators’ World Wide Web use
and their use of other media?

RQ8:

Are the relationships between business communicators’ World Wide Web use and
use of other media different for Mexican business communicators than for U.S.
business

Method
INSTRUMENTATION

To answer the research questions, we used a modified version of Kaye’s (in
press) questionnaire, which drew on Rubin’s 30 reasons for watching television,
and asked respondents about their motivations for using and attitudes toward the
Web, as well as their use of both the Web and of other media. We added the
following definitions of the World Wide Web and what constituted Web use at
the beginning of the questionnaire to prevent potential misunderstandings by
novice users:
For purposes of this questionnaire, the World Wide Web is defined as any
hypertext documents or activities you enter through a World Wide Web browser
(Examples: Microsoft Explorer or Netscape Navigator), including such things as
on-line publications, Web-based e-mail, chat rooms, video and audio streams, and
Web-based games. As you answer the following questions, you should keep in
mind everything you access through any Web browsers, including those
offered through commercial service providers (Examples: CompuServe

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295

Information Systems or America Online). You should not include
non-Web-based activities (Examples: “chats” through such systems as Unix
“talk,” Internet Relay Chat, or CompuServe forums; e-mail messages sent or
received through such applications as Elm, Eudora, Microsoft Exchange, Pine, or
POPMail; interactive role-playing activities such as MUDs, MOOs, or MUSHes).

Functional uses of the Web
We asked two nominal questions to determine respondents’ functional uses of
the Web. Respondents ranked their three favorite types of sites in a categorical
listing, as well as which types of sites they accessed most often. Open-ended
questions also asked respondents about their functional uses of the Web.
Motivations for using the Web
To identify respondents’ motivations for using the World Wide Web, we
utilized Kaye’s (in press) index,1 which drew on Rubin’s (1981, 1983) 30
reasons for watching television, but reworded Rubin’s response items to refer to
the World Wide Web rather than TV. Our questionnaire used five response
options, which allowed respondents to indicate their level of agreement with
each item by checking boxes that corresponded with the following: 1) Strongly
Agree (SA); 2) Agree (A); 3) Neutral (N); 4) Disagree (DA); 5) Strongly
Disagree (SD). In addition, our questionnaire, like Kaye’s, included an openended item that asked respondents to state their main reasons for accessing the
Web.
Attitudes toward the Web
Kaye’s (in press) instrument adapted Rubin’s (1983) two summated indexes to
measure the relative importance of the Web in users’ lives (affinity), and
perceived realism of Web content. Kaye’s instrument also included a third
summated index that probed respondents’ perceived ease of using the Web. We
utilized all three indexes in our questionnaire.
Use of the Web and other media
Our instrument used Kaye’s (in press) response items to ask respondents the
average number of hours they used the Web and their levels of experience, in
terms of both the number of times they had accessed the Web and the number of
hours per week they typically spent on it. Respondents also were asked to
indicate the extent to which their use of various communication technologies
had changed since they started using the Web, how they navigated the Web, and
the types of communication technologies they currently owned.
1

We follow DeVellis's (1991) distinction between a scale and an index, where a scale measures
an” underlying construct,” and an index measures “'cause indicators,' or items that determine the
level of a construct (p. 9).

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DIANE WITMER AND CHUTATIP TAWEESUK

SAMPLE

Because our research questions concerned perceptions of business
communicators in the United States and Mexico, our sample population was
limited to individuals readily identifiable as being involved in some aspect of
business communication or public relations. We thus focused on participants in
professional workshops or meetings of professional associations. The
questionnaires were distributed to three groups of people in four separate
venues: 1) a meeting of the Public Relations Student Society of America
(PRSSA) at a western university; 2) a meeting of the Public Relations Society
of America in the western United States; 3) a workshop in Mexico City, D.F.,
Mexico on public relations technology that was conducted in English, and that
focused on using the Internet and Web; and 4) a workshop in Celaya,
Guanajuato, Mexico on public relations technology that was conducted in
English, and that focused on using the Internet and Web. In all data collection,
we asked that only adults over the age of 18 years old participate, ensured that
all responses were anonymous, and offered a report of our findings.
DATA ANALYSIS

Functional uses of the Web
We used descriptive statistics to examine the demographic composition of the
sample group and functional uses of the Web. We also used chi-square tests to
determine if observed differences between groups for functional uses were
significant.
Motivations for using the Web
A confirmatory principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation was
used on the 30 response items that addressed motivations for using the Web.
The purpose of the factor analysis was to determine the extent to which our
instrument yielded similar factors to those that Kaye (in press) identified. We
also used alpha coefficients to verify internal reliability for each of the
identified factors. We then utilized the regression approach to estimate factor
scores, which yields the highest correlations between factors and factor scores
(Tabachnick and Fidell, 1989). The reduced data were used as dependent
variables in a Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) to test, using
Wilks’ lambda criterion, for differences between U.S. and Mexican business
communicators in motivations for using the Web.
Attitudes toward the Web
The indices for affinity, reality, and ease of use were measured for reliability,
using alpha coefficients, and after adjusting for the reverse polarity of five of
the response items. We then used MANOVAs with Wilks’ lambda criterion to
test for differences between U.S. and Mexican business communicators.

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Use of the Web and other media
Correlation analyses were used to examine the relationships between the five
identified motivations for using the Web and the recency or frequency of their
Web use, and between users’ affinity for the Web and the recency or frequency
of their Web use. We also used a correlation analysis to determine if there were
any significant relationships between respondents’ perceived ease of use and the
recency or frequency of their Web access, and a chi-square statistic to test for
differences between the Mexican and U.S. groups.
Results
A total of 71 people participated in the study: 21 Mexican nationals, 30 U.S.
public relations professionals (PRSA), and 20 U.S. student practitioners
(PRSSA). All participants were at least 18 years old. Of the 65 individuals who
indicated age, most (78.8%) were between the ages of 18 and 34, with the
average age under 30. This is a younger age range than recent Web-based
studies report (see, for example, Georgia Tech Research Corporation, 1997), but
was not a surprise, since 75.0% of the student group in our sample was between
the ages of 18 and 24.2
Of the 65 respondents who indicated gender, 27 (41.5%) were male and 38
(58.5%) were female. Although the ratio of females to males using the Web
appears to be increasing (Georgia Tech Research Corporation, 1997), our
respondents clearly represented a higher ratio of females to males than the
38.5% reported in GVU’s 8th Web Users Survey (Georgia Tech Research
Corporation, 1997). This was not unexpected, since both the PRSA and PRSSA
groups were predominantly female.
Of the 65 respondents who indicated their level of education and income,
27.3% had completed some college, 48.5% had completed a baccalaureate
degree, and 18.2% had completed a master’s degree. Most (71.7%) earned less
than $50,000 per year. This figure may be suppressed as a result of the
relatively low incomes of the student group, 77.7% of whom reported earning
less than $20,000 per year.
FUNCTIONAL USES OF THE WEB

The most popular type of Web site among survey participants was news
delivery. Of the 64 respondents who indicated their three favorite types of Web
sites, 20.3% ranked “News” first, and 48.4% ranked it as one of their top three
2

According to GVU's Eighth survey, the average user is 35.7 years old, which is slightly higher
than the Seventh survey average of 35.2 years old, and continues the trend of increasing average
age. The average age reported in the GVU Survey is within the margin of error reported by
FIND/SVP's 1997 American Internet User Survey of 36.5 years old.

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DIANE WITMER AND CHUTATIP TAWEESUK

favorites. Business sites were ranked first by 25.0% of our respondents, and
were among the top three favorites for 42.2% of the sample group. The third
most popular type of site among our respondents was educational, which was
among the top three favorites for 32.8%, but ranked first among only 4.7%. The
open-ended question that probed which types of information respondents found
most useful on the Web confirmed the ordinal data, and indicated that 37.0% of
our respondents preferred news-related Web sites, and 17.7% accessed business
information. The open-ended question that probed which Web sites participants
accessed most frequently indicated that the most often visited sites pertained to
news (56.5%), entertainment (25.0%), and sports (14.5%).
Although news delivery ranked first in popularity, 42.2% of the respondents
indicated that they most frequently accessed the Web for business or
professional reasons, and 61.0% ranked business as one of their three primary
reasons for accessing the Web. Research (59.4%) and general exploration of
Web content (42.2%), ranked second and third, respectively, as being one of the
top three reasons for accessing the Web. Keeping up with current events was
also cited by 37.5% of the respondents as being among the three primary
reasons for using the Web. The open-ended question that probed reasons for
accessing the Web indicated that approximately 56.5% of our respondents used
the Web primarily for research and for e-mail (26.0%).
We used a chi-square statistic to determine if there were significant
differences between the student group, the U.S. business communicators, and
the Mexican business communicators in their Web site preferences. First, we
ran chi-square statistics to determine if there were significant differences
between the U.S. student and professional groups. The results indicated that
there was no significant difference between the two groups for any of the three
favorite types of Web sites: news (Chi-Square [2, N = 25] = .135, p =.93),
business, (Chi-Square [2, N = 20] = 2.17, p =.33), or educational (Chi-Square
[2, N = 13] = 1.99, p =.37). Tables 1, 2, and 3 represent the statistical tests for
each of the variables.
Table 1. Chi-square for news sites as among top three favorites of students (PRSSA) and
professionals (PRSA)

News sites ranked #1
News sites ranked #2
News sites ranked #3
TOTAL
Percent

PRSSA
4
4
2
10
40.0

PRSA
7
5
3
15
60.0

Chi-Square Value = .13456, df = 2, p = .93493

TOTAL
11
9
5
25
100.0

Percent
44.0
36.0
20.0
100.0

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299

Table 2. Chi-square for business sites as among top three favorites of students (PRSSA) and
professionals (PRSA)

Business sites ranked #1
Business sites ranked #2
Business sites ranked #3
TOTAL
Percent

PRSSA
1
2
1
4
20.0

PRSA
10
5
1
16
80.0

TOTAL
11
7
2
20
100.0

Percent
55.0
35.0
10.0
100.0

Chi-Square Value = 2.16574, df = 2, p = .33862

Table 3. Chi-square for educational sites as among top three favorites of students (PRSSA) and
professionals (PRSA)

Educational sites ranked #1
Educational sites ranked #2
Educational sites ranked #3
TOTAL
Percent

PRSSA
2
4
1
7
53.8

PRSA
1
2
3
6
46.2

TOTAL
3
6
4
13
100.0

Percent
23.1
46.2
30.8
100.0

Chi-Square Value = 1.98889, df = 2, p = .36993

We then combined the data for the student and professional U.S. groups, and
ran chi-square statistics to determine if the Mexican group favored different
Web sites than the combined U.S. groups.
Descriptive statistics indicated that both Mexican and U.S. business
communicators favored news, business, and educational Web sites, but the
rankings were reversed in the two groups. In the United States group, 50.0%
ranked news sites in the top three, 40.0% favored business sites, and 26.0%
preferred educational sites. In contrast, the 42.9% of the Mexican group
preferred educational Web sites, 38.1% favored business sites, and 33.3% listed
news sites in the top three. To determine if these differences were statistically
significant, we ran chi-square tests. The statistical analysis indicated the
differences between groups were not significant for the rankings of the three
types of Web sites: news (Chi-Square [2, N = 32] = .59, p =.75), business, (ChiSquare [2, N = 28] = 1.41, p =.49), or educational (Chi-Square [2, N = 22] =
3.94, p =.14). Tables 4, 5, and 6 represent the statistical tests for each of the
variables.

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DIANE WITMER AND CHUTATIP TAWEESUK

Table 4. Chi-square for news sites as among top three favorites of Mexican and US business
communicators

News sites ranked #1
News sites ranked #2
News sites ranked #3
TOTAL
Percent

Mexican
2
3
2
7
21.9

U.S.
11
9
5
25
78.1

TOTAL
13
12
7
32
100.0

Percent
40.6
37.5
21.9
100.0

Chi-Square Value = .58635, df = 2, p = .74589

Table 5. Chi-square for business sites as among top three favorites of Mexican and U.S. business
communicators

Business sites ranked #1
Business sites ranked #2
Business sites ranked #3
TOTAL
Percent

Mexican
5
3
0
8
28.6

U.S.
11
7
2
20
71.4

TOTAL
16
10
2
28
100.0

Percent
57.1
35.7
7.1
100.0

Chi-Square Value = 1.41105, df = 2, p = .49385

Table 6. Chi-square for educational sites as among top three favorites of Mexican and U.S.
business communicators

Educational sites ranked #1
Educational sites ranked #2
Educational sites ranked #3
TOTAL
Percent

Mexican
0
4
5
9
40.9

Chi-Square Value = 3.94160, df = 2, p = .13935

U.S.
3
6
4
13
59.1

TOTAL
3
10
9
22
100.0

Percent
13.6
45.5
40.9
100.0

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301

MOTIVATIONS FOR USING THE WEB

To determine the reliability of the survey instrument in identifying the factors
described by Kaye (in press), we ran a confirmatory principal components
factor analysis with varimax rotation on the 30 response items that addressed
motivations for using the Web. An eight-factor solution with eigenvalues of at
least one accounted for 74.2% of the variance. Six variables did not load on any
factor and were discarded from further analysis. Another two variables loaded
on two factors, and also were discarded. One factor had no variables that loaded
at a minimum of .50, and another two factors had only one variable. The
remaining five factors corresponded most closely with six of Greenberg’s
(1972) five motivations for television viewing among children than with
Ruben’s. Greenberg’s motivations for media use were: (i) to pass the time, (ii)
for arousal, (iii) to forget, (iv) for relaxation, (v) for social interaction, and (vi)
out of habit. Most of the variables that addressed Greenberg’s motivation of
learning did not meet the criteria for factor loadings, and habit loaded with the
factor of passing time, similar to Rubin’s motivations. See Table 7 for the factor
matrix of motivations for using the World Wide Web.
Internal reliability for each of the indices that resulted from the factor
analysis was acceptable: to pass the time, alpha = .89; for arousal, .78; to forget,
.81; for relaxation, .72; and for social interaction, .73. Thus, we accepted the
factor for social interaction, because although it included only two variables,
those variables were highly correlated with each other and did not correlate with
other variables (Tabachnick and Fidell, 1989).
Factor scores for each of the five factors were estimated using the regression
approach. We then performed a Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA),
using Wilks’ lambda criterion, with the U.S. PRSA and PRSSA groups being
the independent variables, and the five motivation factors being the dependent
variables. Since there were no significant differences between the two groups at
the 95% confidence level (F[5,34] = .30, p = .907, η2 = .04), we combined them
for a comparison of U.S. and Mexican groups. A MANOVA on the five
motivation factors as dependent variables with the U.S. and Mexican groups as
independent variables indicated no significant differences at the 95%
confidence level between the two groups in their motivations for using the Web
(F[5,51] = 1.68, p = .16, η2 = .14), although the univariate statistics indicated
that one factor, arousal, approached significance(F[1,55] = 3.37, p = .072, η2 =
.06). The other nonsignificant factors were: to pass the time (F[1,55] = .06, p =
.805, η2 = .00); to forget (F[1,55] = 2.72, p = .105, η2 = .05); for relaxation
(F[1,55] = 1.15, p = .288, η2 = .02); and for social interaction (F[1,55] = .83, p =
.367, η2 = .01). (See Table 8.)

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Table 7. Factor matrix of motivations for using the World Wide Web

Factor 1
Pass Time/
Web Use
Habit
Motivations
a=.89
Factor 1: Pass Time/Habit
Occupy time
.54184
It’s exciting
.55356
It’s a habit
.79440
It’s a pleasant rest
.76535
When I’m bored
.76645
It relaxes me
.69711
It peps me up
.49846*
Factor 2: Arousal
It entertains me
It’s thrilling
Learn how to do
things
Enjoyment
Factor 3:Escape
Forget school or
work
Get away from what
I’m doing
Get away from
family, etc.
Makes me feel less
lonely
Factor 4: Relaxation
Allows me to unwind
Family and friends
also like Web
It amuses me
Factor 5: Social
No one else to talk to
Talk to others about a
site accessed

Factor 2
Arousal
a=.78

Factor 4
Relaxation
a=.72

Factor 5
Social
a=.73

.65851
.73186
.82314
.72245

Variables that did not meet factor loading criteria
Did not load on any factor:
Like to access certain sites
Like to access the Web
Learn what could happen
Access a specific site
Find specific information
Nothing better to do
Double loaded:
I don’t have to be alone
It helps me learn about myself and others

*Rounded to .50

Factor 3
Escape
(to Forget)
a=.81

.87512
.50400
.70284
.50883
.76983
.75296
.51481
.70778
.74951

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303

Table 8. Univariate F Tests for Web use motivations by nationality

Indep. Var.
Nationality
(MX and US)

Dep. Variable
Pass time/Habit
Arousal
Escape
Relaxation
Socializing

F
0.06133
3.37434
2.71663
1.15232
0.82892

df
1,55
1,55
1,55
1,55
1,55

Sig. of F
.805
.072
.105
.288
.367

ATTITUDES TOWARD THE WEB.

We tested for reliability of each scale designed to measure affinity toward the
Web, perceived reality of the Web, and perceived ease of use. The index for
affinity and ease of use were acceptable, with alpha coefficients of .79 and .70,
respectively. The index for perceived reality yielded an alpha of .20. Discarding
any single item produced no alpha coefficient higher than .29, so the index was
discarded from further analysis.
Affinity.
Most of the 68 participants who responded to the questionnaire items that
addressed affinity indicated that they could do without the Web (61.8%), would
not miss it if they didn’t use it (60.6%), and did not prefer using the Web over
doing other things (60.3%). Less than one-third (32.4%) indicated that using the
Web was one of the most important things they did each day.
To test for differences in the relative importance of the Web between groups,
we ran a MANOVA on the affinity index, which indicated no significant
difference between U.S. students and professionals (F[4,42] = 1.09, p = .373, η2
= .09). We therefore combined the two groups for a comparison of Mexican and
U.S. Web users, and ran a MANOVA on the affinity index, which indicated a
significant difference between the two groups (F[4,62] = 3.79, p = .008, η2 =
.20). The univariate tests indicated significant differences at the 95% confidence
level on two of the four items: the one that stated, “Using the Web is one of the
most important things I do each day” (F[1,65] = 7.71, p = .007, η2 = .11), and
the statement that “I would rather use the Web than do anything else” (F[1,65] =
7.97, p = .006, η2 = .11) (see Table 9). More people in the Mexican group
(55.5%) perceived the Web as important or very important than did people in
the U.S. group (25.0%), and more of the Mexican participants preferred using
the Web do doing other things (25.0% compared to 14.6%)

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Table 9. Univariate F Tests for Web use affinity by nationality

Indep. Var.
Nationality
(MX and US)

Dep. Variable
Could do without
Would not miss Web
Using Web is
important
Prefer using the Web
to anything

F
0.01024
0.01990
7.70786

df
1,65
1,65
1,65

Sig. of F
.920
.888
.007

7.97143

1,65

.006

Ease of use.
Respondents were divided on their perceptions of the ease in updating news via
the Web versus television, with 45% indicating disagreement and 35.2%
agreeing with the statement that the Web was easier than TV. However, the
bulk of participants considered the Web easy to use. The majority, 84.5%,
responded that they usually could find specific information on the Web. The
data also indicated that 74.7% of the respondents believed they could find
information more quickly on the Web than in the library, 66.2% considered it
easy to find information on the Web, and 63.4% considered finding information
on the Web easier than by non-electronic sources.
We used MANOVA to test for differences between the U.S. student and
professional groups for perceived ease of use. Since there were no significant
differences at the 95% confidence level between the two groups (F[5,37] = 1.38,
p = 253, η2 = .16), we combined them for a comparison between the Mexican
and U.S. groups. Results indicated no significant differences between the U.S.
and Mexican business communicators in their perceptions of ease of Web use
(F[5,54] = 1.15, p =.346, η2 = .10).
USE OF THE WEB AND OTHER MEDIA

Respondents in this sample used the Web fairly regularly, although most
(51.5% reported using the Web five hours per week or less. The majority
(68.6%) reported that they had accessed the Web more than 50 times, and
48.6% indicated they had used the Web more than 100 times. A chi-square test
indicated no significant difference in Web experience for Mexican users when
compared to U.S. users (Chi-Square [5, N = 70] = 4.51, p =.48). Nearly all
(94.2%) of the survey participants had accessed the Web within a week of
completing the questionnaire, and most (70.0%) had used the Web within 24
hours. Most (70.4%) reported owning at least one computer with a CD ROM,
and 28.1% indicated they owned at least one computer without a CD ROM. The
majority of our participants owned at least one cellular phone (61.9%) or car
phone (15.5%).

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305

A correlation analysis indicated mild relationships at the .05 level of
probability between affinity toward the Web and both the frequency and
duration of respondents’ Web use (see Table 10). A comparison of the
correlation matrices for the Mexican and the U.S. groups indicated that all five
dimensions of affinity correlated mildly with duration of Web use for U.S.
participants, but did not correlate at all for Mexican participants. Similarly, all
five dimensions of affinity correlated with frequency of Web use for the U.S.
group, but only on two dimensions for the Mexican group (see Table 11).
Table 10. Correlation matrix of affinity toward the Web and frequency, duration, and recency of
Web use for all participants

Attitude toward the Web
Could do without
Would not miss
Important to do
Rather use than anything else
* p < .05, ** p .01, *** p .001

Recency
0.1665
0.1610
0.2312
0.1935

Duration
0.3193**
0.2275
0.4711***
0.3987***

Frequency
0.2988**
0.4580***
0.3153**
0.2962*

Table 11. Correlation matrices of affinity toward the Web and frequency, duration, and recency of
Web use for U.S. and Mexican participants
Attitude
toward
the Web
Could do
without
Would not
miss
Important
to do
Rather use
than
anything
else

* p .05,

Recency
(US)

Recency
(MX)

Duration
(US)

Duration
(MX)

Frequency
(US)

Frequency
(MX)

0.1560

0.1949

0.5328***

0.1176

0.3590*

0.1655

0.0437

0.4505*

0.3970**

0.0445

0.4691*

0.4003** -0.0975

0.5047***

0.4254

0.4549**
*
0.4292**

0.2405

0.3812**

0.3526

0.3023*

0.5076**

0.1691

0.2529

** p < .01, *** p .001

A correlation analysis indicated a weak relationship at the .05 level of
probability between one motivation factor (relaxation) and the average number
of hours participants spent on the Web in a week (α = .28, p = .04). None of the
other motivation factors (to pass time, arousal, to socialize, and for escape)
correlated with frequency, duration, or recency of Web use (see Table 12).
Additional correlation analyses for Mexican participants and U.S. participants
revealed a slight relationship between the relaxation factor and the average

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weekly Web use among Americans (α = .34, p = .04), but not among Mexican
participants (see Table 13).
Table 12. Correlation matrix of motivational factors and frequency, duration, and recency of Web
use for all participants.

Factor

Recency

Pass time/Habit
Arousal
Escape
Relaxation
Socializing
* p < .05

0.1349
-0.1164
-0.0501
0.1137
0.1572

Duration
0.0679
0.2105
-0.1477
0.2752*
-0.2110

Frequency
-0.1059
0.2228
-0.0244
0.0717
0.1311

Table 13. Correlation matrices of motivational factors and frequency, duration, and recency of
Web use for U.S. and Mexican participants

Factor

Recency
(US)

Recency
(MX)

Duration
(US)

Pass time/habit
Arousal
Escape
Relaxation
Socializing

0.0669
-0.2648
-0.1800
-0.0050
0.2052

0.3508
0.1204
0.2877
0.3968
0.0514

0.0805
0.1999
0.0273
0.3378*
-0.0125

Duration
(MX)

0.0635
0.0866
-0.2766
0.1242
-0.4235

Frequency
(US)

Frequency
(MX)

-0.0481
0.2355
-0.0830
0.0617
0.2303

-0.2871
0.3205
-0.0013
0.1899
-0.1544

* p < .05

Perceived ease of finding information on the Web correlated mildly with the
average number of hours users spent on the Web (α = .34, p = .01), but no other
dimension for ease of use was related to frequency, duration, or recency of Web
use (see Table 14). Additional correlation analyses indicated that a mild
relationship (α = .47, p = .05) existed only between perceived quickness of
searching for information on the Web and frequency of Web use for the
Mexican participants (see Table 15).
Of the participants who responded to the items that asked about the extent to
which their Web use affected their use of other media, 72.7% indicated their
television viewing had not changed, and 21.2% indicated it had decreased or
greatly decreased. A total of 83.1% respondents indicated their viewing of
videotapes had not changed, and most had not changed their radio (72.3%) or
stereo listening (75.8%). However, 47.8% of the respondents indicated their
library use had decreased or greatly decreased. While the reading habits of most

WEB USES AND GRATIFICATIONS

307

survey participants remained unchanged (58.2% for magazines, 56.1% for
newspapers, and 72.7% for books), some decrease in reading was evident in
these data. Magazine reading has decreased or greatly decreased for 23.9% of
the respondents; 24.2% report a decrease or great decrease in their newspaper
reading; and 19.7% read fewer books for leisure. Movie going has remained
unchanged for most (80.3%) respondents (see Table 16).
Table 14. Correlation matrix of perceived ease of use and frequency, duration, and recency of
Web use for all participants

Dimension
Web easier than TV to update news
Relative ease of finding specific
info on Web
Easy to find information on Web
Quick to search on Web
Web easier than non-electronic
sources
* p < .01

Recency
0.1087
0.0035
0.0118
0.0405
-0.0102

Duration
0.2107
0.1225
0.3366**
0.1630
0.1425

Frequency
0.2410
0.0204
0.0686
0.1183
0.0993

Table 15. Correlation matrices of perceived ease of use and frequency, duration, and recency of
Web use for U.S. and Mexican participants

Dimension
Web easier
than TV to
update news
Relative ease
of finding
specific info
on Web
Easy to find
information
on Web
Quick to
search on
Web
Web easier
than nonelectronic
sources

* p = .05

Recency
(US)
0.0474

Recency
(MX)
0.2727

Duration
(US)
0.2626

Duration
(MX)
0.1495

Frequency
(US)
0.2521

Frequency
(MX)
0.2662

-0.0553

0.1695

0.0020

0.1979

-0.0248

0.1714

-0.0326

0.1375

0.2049

0.4668

0.0489

0.2427

0.0571

0.0000

0.0571

0.3176

0.0047

0.4694*

0.1079

-0.2855

0.1031

0.2138

0.0694

0.2103

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DIANE WITMER AND CHUTATIP TAWEESUK

Table 16. Relationship of World Wide Web use and use of other media for all survey participants.

Medium Used

Television
VCR
Magazines
Newspapers
Books (for
Leisure)
Movies
Radio
Stereo
Library

Greatly
Increased
(%)
1.5
1.5
6.0
7.6
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5

Increased
(%)

Unchanged
(%)

Decreased
(%)

4.5
3.1
11.9
12.1
18.2

72.7
83.1
58.2
56.1
72.7

19.7
7.7
22.4
22.7
18.2

12.1
16.9
13.6
14.9

80.3
72.3
75.8
35.8

4.5
7.7
9.1
44.8

Greatly
Decreased
(%)
1.5
4.6
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.0
3.0

More U.S. respondents (15.0%) reported a decrease in television viewing
than did Mexican respondents (11.1%). A chi-square test indicated no
significant differences between the Mexican and U.S. business communicators
in their use of most media, but did reveal a significant difference between the
two groups in the relationship between Web use and television watching (ChiSquare [4, N = 66] = 11.97, p =.02) (see Table 17).
Table 17. Chi-square for relationship between Web use and television watching between Mexican
and U.S. groups

Mexican
U.S.
TOTAL
Greatly decreased
1
0
1
Decreased
5
8
13
No change
11
37
48
Increased
3
0
3
Greatly increased
0
1
1
TOTAL
20
46
66
Percent
30.3
69.7
100.0
Chi-Square Value = 11.97321, df = 4, Significance = .01755

Percent
1.5
19.7
72.7
4.5
1.5
100.0

Discussion
FUNCTIONAL USES OF THE WEB

Our first two research questions sought to identify the major functional uses of
the Web for business communicators and the ways in which those uses might be

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309

different for Mexican Web users than for users in the United States. Our study
indicates that Mexican and the U.S. groups are nearly identical in their uses of
the Web, although the rank order of their top three Web uses are reversed in our
findings. The participants from both groups in this study use the Web primarily
as a tool for news gathering and information seeking. The data indicate that
news, business, and educational sites are the most often accessed, and that
business communicators in this sample typically use the Web for business and
professional purposes. These results confirm those of the study by Fawcett
(1996), who found that 82.0% of respondents used the Web to collect news and
information.
The overwhelming interest in research and keeping up with current events
across groups supports the idea that business communication and public
relations requires a knowledge of world and business news and research in a
broad range of subjects (e.g., Strenski, 1996). Thus, the Web may serve as an
information resource where users can find specific information they want from
home, work, or school, then download, print, or save to disk for easy retrieval.
MOTIVATIONS FOR USING THE WEB

Our third and fourth research questions focused on identifying business
communicators’ motivations for using the Web, and determining if those
motivations were different for Mexican professionals than for U.S.
professionals. Although we utilized a nearly identical survey instrument to
Kaye’s (1996), we were unable to replicate her results. Our data yielded five
motivation factors that more closely with Greenberg’s (1972) seven motivations
for television viewing among children than with Rubin’s (1983) factors,
although the questionnaire items were drawn from Rubin’s work. This finding
is not surprising, given the similarity of the factors identified by both
researchers.
ATTITUDES TOWARD THE WEB.

The fourth and fifth research question asked about the relationships between
business communicators’ World Wide Web use motivations, and Web affinity,
perceived reality and ease of use, and whether those relationships were different
for Mexican Web users than for U.S. users. Since our index for perceived reality
was not appropriate for analysis, we are unable to fully answer these questions,
and could address only affinity and perceived reality.
Affinity
Our data indicate that the Web does not play a particularly important role in the
lives of business communicators, even though they routinely use it. This is not
unexpected, since more than a quarter of our respondents indicate that a major
functional use of the Web is e-mail. Had our survey instrument included

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DIANE WITMER AND CHUTATIP TAWEESUK

functions that users accessed without their Web browsers, this figure
undoubtedly would be considerably higher.
Differences between the Mexican and U.S. groups in affinity indicate that
the Mexican users consider the Web both more important and a more interesting
way to spend their time than do the U.S. users. This may be due, in part, to the
newness of Web technology in a developing nation, although our Mexican
participants have similar levels of Web experience to those of the U.S.
participants.
Ease of use
Our data indicate that both Mexican and U.S. business communicators consider
the Web easy to use. This finding is to be expected, given the educational and
experiential levels of our respondents, who typically are college graduates, and
have accessed the Web between 50 and 75 times. There is some evidence that
both Mexican and U.S. users spend more time on the Web when they perceive
information easy to access on-line. However, only Mexican users who have
accessed the Web repeatedly consider the Web a quick resource for seeking
specific information.
USE OF THE WEB AND USE OF OTHER MEDIA

Our seventh and eighth research questions examined the relationships between
business communicators’ World Wide Web use and their use of other media,
and asked if World Wide Web use and use of other media were different for
Mexican business communicators than for U.S. business communicators. Our
data indicate that U.S. business communicators who access the sites for relation
purpose may spend more time on the Web, but that Web use is not correlated
with any of the other motivation factors identified in this study. Not
surprisingly, the participants in our sample access the Web more times and for
more hours per week when they have a higher affinity toward the Web. Thus,
the more experienced users tend to perceive the Web as more important to their
lives.
Our study results indicate that the Web is not supplanting use of other
media; both Mexican and U.S. users have not changed the extent to which they
watch television, movies or videotapes, or listen to the radio or stereo. This may
be, in part, to the fact that one can listen to a stereo or have the television on
while sitting at the computer. Radio listening, in particular, often occurs during
automobile commutes, times when one is unlikely to be using a computer to
connect to the Web. The data do indicate, however, that some Web users tend to
rely less on printed forms of communication such as magazines and
newspapers, and that they read less for pleasure.

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311

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study has some limitations that affect generalizability to a larger
population The first involves the sampling procedure. Since our research
questions concerned perceptions of business communicators in the United
States and Mexico, we limited our sample population to individuals readily
identifiable as being involved in some aspect of business communication or
public relations. We thus focused on student and professional public relations
associations and on workshop participants in Mexico who were interested in
Internet and Web technology. Thus, our nonprobabilistic sample focused on
public relations groups in the western United States, and on business
communicators with stated interests in Web and Internet technology.
Participants in both groups were generally computer literate and well educated,
and may not be representative of all business communicators. Second, the
relatively small sample size may affect the statistical power of our findings.
Third, we were unable to calculate response rates to our survey because
administrative difficulties during data collection in Mexico prevented an
accurate count of workshop participants. Finally, because the Mexican
workshops were conducted in English, our survey instrument was written in
English. Therefore, we may have received fewer responses and less accurate
responses to questionnaire items than if we had used a Spanish language
translation. Nonetheless, this study offers researchers a starting point for
exploring functional and psychological reasons for Web use in a business
environment.
Implications and Conclusions
Our research indicates that Mexican and U.S. business communicators are more
similar than different in their use of the World Wide Web. Their professional
needs clearly outweigh any cultural differences that may affect their Web use.
Older media (including television) are not being supplanted by the Web, but
these business users do tend to consider the Web a replacement for a trip to the
library or a daily newspaper. As integrated communication technologies
continue to emerge (e.g., Web TV), the interactivity of the Web will continue to
be a central issue for business and professional communications. Television
commercials and infomercials, for example, are likely to make heavy use of the
interactive capabilities of Web technology to attract buyers who prefer
interactive communication (Lee and Lee, 1995).
Web use motivations are similar to gratifications sought from TV viewing,
but seem to be an uncomfortable fit for researchers in the new medium of
computer-mediated communication. The Web, for example, offers users an
interactive, multi-directional channel of communication (e.g., e-mail and
listservs), as well as news, business and educational sites. A number of

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variables that constitute the five factors we identified appear to address
constructs more closely associated with flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990;
Csikszentmihalyi and Selega-Csikszentmihalyi, 1989) than with traditional
motivations for mass media consumption, including cognitive enjoyment,
control, and absorption in the event (e.g., the items that address enjoyment,
excitement, and learning). While experiencing a state of flow, for example, an
individual’s cognitive and sensory curiosities are aroused (Malone, 1981)
through various, new, and surprising stimuli (Berlyne, 1960). Technological
characteristics of the Web, including color, graphics, movement, and sound can
stimulate sensory curiosity. A user also may be cognitively aroused by the
desire to attain competence/expertise with the Web through the menu options
and point-and-click technology that stimulate exploration (Malone and Lepper,
1987).
The concept of flow also is linked to interactivity, which is defined as
responsiveness of the medium (Rafaeli, 1988). Interactivity is a characteristic of
the Web that may enhance interpersonal communication (Heeter, 1989),
flexibility (Kiesler, Zubrow, Moses, and Gellar, 1985), and human control over
the pace, structure, and content of the communication (Rice, et al., 1984;
Rogers, 1986). Trevino and Webster (1992) propose that, unlike traditional
communication, CMC also requires users to interact with the technology itself.
Thus, a user may choose to use a communication technology not only for the
utilitarian purpose of sending or receiving a message, but because s/he enjoys
interacting with technology. Such lived experience with technology is a
phenomenon that seems more appropriately informed by a theoretical grounding
in flow than in traditional uses and gratifications. Thus, future investigations
should reconceptualize user motivations for Web use in terms of constructs that
address the constructs of flow. Some researchers already are doing this (e.g.,
Csikszentmihalyi 1990; Ghani, Supnick and Rooney 1991; Hoffman and
Novak, 1995; Trevino and Webster 1992; Webster, Trevino, and Ryan 1993),
and it is clear that new ways of studying new technologies are an intellectual
and practical imperative.
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